Zooplankton swarms: characteristics, proximal cues and proposed advantages

This review focuses on monospecific swarms of four taxonomic groups of small crustaceans: three groups are marine copepods: oithonids (Oithona and Dioithona), Acartia species and Calanus species; and the fourth group includes freshwater cladoceran species in the Order Anomopoda. For each of these groups there is a substantial literature on swarming behavior from field studies and laboratory experiments. Swarming characteristics of each taxonomic group are reviewed, proximal cues for swarming are described, comparisons are made for proposed advantages of swarming, and future research directions are suggested. Swarming characteristics of Calanus spp. are distinctly different from those of the smaller crustaceans: the oithonids, acartiids and cladocerans. In a conceptual model proposed for the smaller crustaceans, swarming behavior is affected by their interactions with light cues, water currents and turbulence, behavior of their predators and prey, and abundance of other trophic levels.[PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]