Winter food and cover refuges of large ungulates in lowland forests of south-western Poland

•Winter habitat selection by wild ungulates in 644km2 of forest in Poland was studied.•Red deer, roe deer and wild boars preferred mixed coniferous–deciduous forests.•Deer and wild boars preferred forest that was 1–20years old or older than 60years.•Preferred forest habitats were used for designing wild ungulate refuges.•Refuges covered 20% (red deer), 8% (roe deer), and 8% (wild boar) of the study area. We examined the winter habitat selection of forest types and age classes of tree stands by red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa) and determined potential refuges for these ungulates in the Bory Dolnośląskie forest, which covers an area of 644km2 in south-western Poland. We determined habitat use from ungulate tracks in the snow in February 2009 and 2010 on line transects (total length=365km) and the numbers of animals that crossed the transects, and their locations related to forest types (n=9), and age classes of tree stands (n=6). Significant preferences by red deer were for hygric mixed coniferous and mesic mixed deciduous forest and young forest plantations, thickets, and tree stands over 60years old. Roe deer preferred mesic mixed coniferous forests, young plantations and tree stands older than 60years. Hygric mixed coniferous and hygric deciduous forests, and thickets and tree stands aged from 61 to 80years were preferred by wild boars. Habitat preferences were associated with higher food reserves, better thermal and hiding covers, and energy requirements of large ungulates. The patches of forest types and age classes of tree stands preferred by large ungulates which overlapped on digital maps were treated as refuges. Refuges (n=19) for red deer occupied 131km2. Roe deer refuges (n=24) covered 54km2, and those of wild boars (n=18) covered 53km2. In the Bory Dolnośląskie forest, daily activity of large ungulates is disturbed by forest managers practices, hunting and tourism. Determining winter refuges can be used by forest management to do the following: to shift forest management from winter to autumn, to exclude the use of hiking/biking trails and camping sites in the winter season, as well as to design changes in the distribution of drive hunt areas.