Application of hydrogeochemical modelling in simulating the transportation of elements in fly ash heap under different disposal systems in South Africa

•We modelled fly ash–rainwater and fly ash–brines interaction for 20years.•Long-term quality of leachate from ash heap was predicted and quantified.•Weathering of fly ash interacted with water or brines is found to be pH dependent.•Fly ash–brine–water co-disposal results in mineralogical transformation of fly-ash.•Greatest fly ash weathering occurred at the top layer (0.55–3m). Ash heap modelling of South African fly ash from Tutuka was carried out and the duration of transportation projected for 20years based on two disposal scenarios, namely; irrigation of ash with rainwater, and irrigation with brines. The hydrogeochemical modeling code, PHREEQC, was applied in the study which gave insights into the speciation, release and transport of elements from the water and brines–fly ash long term interactions. Tutuka ash–water heap model showed a general sharp decrease of total elemental concentrations released during the first 2.5years simulation as the pH value dropped from 12.6 to 8.7, after which it remained constant and their concentration remained constant up to 20years. The elements showing this trend included Ca, Mg, Al, Fe, Sr, Zn, Na, K, Li and C(4). Generally, brines caused sharp increase in released concentration of the elements Ca, Mg, S(6) and C(4) for the first 3years of heap irrigation whereas with water irrigation an opposite trend was observed in which the elemental concentrations decreased. Much of the release chemistry of the elements was closely related to the phase dissolution/precipitation and formation as the major controlling factors. Generally therefore, the modelled leachate quality results revealed that many elements are mobile and move through the ash heap in a progressive leaching pathway. The model could therefore be used to provide reasonable leachate quality from the modelled Tutuka ash heap which may be reaching the ground water. Overall, the ash heap modelling enhanced the understanding of the environmental impacts of ash–water–brines interactions and demonstrated that leachate composition is determined by the following factors; (i) the mass flows from the pores of fly ash, (ii) the surface dissolution of the mineral phases, (iii) the various chemical reactions involved during the ash–brine and ash–water interactions, (iv) the interactions with a gas phase (atmospheric CO2), (v) the composition of the initial fly ash, and (vi) the leachate flow and hydrodynamics as captured in the conceptual model. Further model validation is r