Acute and chronic psychological stress as risk factors for cardiovascular disease: Insights gained from epidemiological, clinical and experimental studies

Highlights • CVD and its underlying pathology atherosclerosis remain a leading cause of death worldwide. • Identification and understanding of all its risk factors is key in combating this disease. • Chronic stress exposure results in maladaptive immune, endocrine and metabolic responses. • Acute stress-induced inflammation may precipitate atherosclerotic plaque destabilization. • Psychosocial stress can be an important target for the prevention of cardiovascular complications.