Patterns of drought-induced embolism formation and spread in living walnut saplings visualized using X-ray microtomography

Embolism formation and spread are dependent on conduit structure and xylem network connectivity. Detailed spatial analysis has been limited due to a lack of non-destructive methods to visualize these processes in living plants. We used synchrotron X-ray computed tomography (microCT) to visualize these processes in vivo for Juglans microcarpa Berl. saplings subjected to drought, and also evaluated embolism repair capability after re-watering. Cavitation was not detected in vivo until stem water potentials (Ψ(stem)) reached -2.2 MPa, and loss of stem hydraulic conductivity as derived from microCT images predicted that 50% of conductivity was lost at Ψ(stem) of ∼ -3.5 MPa; xylem vulnerability as determined with the centrifuge method was comparable only in the range of Ψ(stem) from -2.5 to -3.5 MPa. MicroCT images showed that cavitation appeared initially in isolated vessels not connected to other air-filled conduits. Once embolized vessels were present, multiple vessels in close proximity cavitated, and 3-D analysis along the stem axis revealed some connections between cavitated vessels. A tomography-derived automated xylem network analysis found that only 36% of vessels had one or more connections to other vessels. Cavitation susceptibility was related to vessel diameter, with large diameter vessels (>40 μm, mean diameter 25-30 μm) cavitating mainly under moderate stress (Ψ(stem) > -3 MPa) and small diameter vessels (