Exposure to carbon monoxide, fine particle mass, and ultrafine particle number in Jakarta, Indonesia: Effect of commute mode

We measured real-time exposure to PM2.5, ultrafine PM (particle number) and carbon monoxide (CO) for commuting workers school children, and traffic police, in Jakarta, Indonesia. In total, we measured exposures for 36 individuals covering 93days. Commuters in private cars experienced mean (st dev) exposures of 22 (9.4) ppm CO, 91 (38) μg/m3PM2.5, and 290 (150)×103 particlescm−3. Mean concentrations were higher in public transport than in private cars for PM2.5 (difference in means: 22%) and particle counts (54%), but not CO, likely reflecting in-vehicle particle losses in private cars owing to air-conditioning. However, average commute times were longer for private car commuters than public transport commuters (in our sample, 24% longer: 3.0 vs. 2.3h per day). Commute and traffic-related exposures experienced by Jakarta residents are among the highest in the world, owing to high on-road concentrations and multi-hour commutes. ► Traffic-related pollutant exposures of Jakartans are among the highest in the world. ► Causes include two-stroke engines, missing catalytic converters, and high sulfur fuel. ► Car owners averaged 22ppm CO and 60% of total daily CO exposure during commutes. ► Inhaled dose during commuting varied significantly with commute mode and time. ► Portable, real-time instruments uncovered determinants of pollutant exposures.