Sounding-Based Thermodynamic Budgets for DYNAMO

The Dynamics of the Madden–Julian Oscillation (DYNAMO) field campaign, conducted over the Indian Ocean from October 2011 to March 2012, was designed to study the initiation of the Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO). Two prominent MJOs occurred in the experimental domain during the special observing period in October and November. Data from a northern and a southern sounding array (NSA and SSA, respectively) have been used to investigate the apparent heat sources and sinks (Q1 and Q2) and radiative heating rates QR throughout the life cycles of the two MJO events. The MJO signal was far stronger in the NSA than the SSA. Time series of Q1, Q2, and the vertical eddy flux of moist static energy reveal an evolution of cloud systems for both MJOs consistent with prior studies: shallow, nonprecipitating cumulus during the suppressed phase, followed by cumulus congestus, then deep convection during the active phase, and finally stratiform precipitation. However, the duration of these phases was shorter for the November MJO than for the October event. The profiles of Q1 and Q2 for the two arrays indicate a greater stratiform rain fraction for the NSA than the SSA—a finding supported by TRMM measurements. Surface rainfall rates and net tropospheric QR determined as residuals from the budgets show good agreement with satellite-based estimates. The cloud radiative forcing was approximately 20% of the column-integrated convective heating and of the same amplitude as the normalized gross moist stability, leaving open the possibility of radiative–convective instability for the two MJOs.