Radiation endurance of piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers – A review

•The literature on radiation resistance of ultrasonic transducers is reviewed.•Minor changes to standard transducer design improves endurance to ∼2MGy gamma dose.•Customized piezoelectric transducers can withstand over 100MGy gamma dose.•There is inadequate data on neutron irradiation of piezoelectric transducers.•Insufficient data exist on endurance of transducers in liquid metal-cooled reactors. A literature survey is presented on the radiation endurance of piezoelectric ultrasonic transducer components and complete transducer assemblies, as functions of cumulative gamma dose and neutron fluence. The most extensive data on this topic has been acquired in CANDU electrical generating stations, which use piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers manufactured commercially with minor accommodation for high radiation fields. They have been found to be reliable for cumulative gamma doses of up to approximately 2MegaGrays; a brief summary is made of the associated accommodations required to the transducer design, and the ultimate expected failure modes. Outside of the CANDU experience, endurance data have been acquired under a diverse spectrum of operating conditions; this can impede a direct comparison of the information from different sources. Much of this data is associated with transducers immersed in liquid metal coolants associated with advanced reactor designs. Significant modifications to conventional designs have led to the availability of custom transducers that can endure well over 100MegaGrays of cumulative gamma dose. Published data on transducer endurance against neutron fluence are reviewed, but are either insufficient, or were reported with inadequate description of test conditions, to make general conclusions on transducer endurance with high confidence. Several test projects are planned or are already underway by major laboratories and research consortia to augment the store of transducer endurance data with respect to both gamma and neutron radiation.