Immunosenescence and vaccine failure in the elderly: Strategies for improving response

Highlights • The immune response in the elderly is anomalous as compared to that of young and adult individuals. • Vaccines designed for children and adults may be less effective in the elderly population. • Vaccine design requires knowledge of the immunosenescence mechanisms and of the individual past history of exposure/immunity. • Current vaccination strategies are still not personalised, but act on improving various aspects of vaccination. • These include increased/repeated vaccine dosing, different administration routes, use of adjuvants, and new delivery systems.