Further evidence of an Environmental Kuznets Curve in Spain

Using a long span of data in Spain, Esteve and Tamarit (2012b) reported evidence of a strong link between per capita income and per capita CO2. In this paper we extend their work, finding evidence of both non-linear cointegration and asymmetric adjustment using a novel approach due to Sephton (1994) and Sephton and Mann (2012). The results suggest that there is a long-run non-linear attractor drawing per capita income and CO2 levels together, with asymmetric adjustment. ► We show emissions and GDP in Spain are non-linearly cointegrated. ► Adjustment between equilibria depend on multiple thresholds. ► Weak exogeneity characterizes adjustment in some regions.