Assessment of air pollution emitted during cooking using biomass and cleaner fuels in the Shiselweni region of Eswatini (Swaziland)

In Eswatini, 62.3% of households still rely on solid fuel for cooking, especially wood (61.8%). Smoke emissions during biomass burning remain the primary source of indoor air pollution, comprising pollutants detrimental to health. This study provides a quantitative exposure assessment of fuels used in the Shiselweni region with the objectives of monitoring the carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) concentrations during cooking events and evaluating cancer and noncancer risks due to exposure to particulate-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during cooking events among cooking personnel in households that cook indoors by burning biomass. Real-time CO, CO 2, and particulate matter (PM) monitoring was performed in seventeen kitchens during cooking events across the Shiselweni region using different cooking methods: biomass in open fires and stoves, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and electric stoves. PM 2.5 , PM 10, and CO exceeded indoor exposure guidelines for biomass fuel-related homesteads. Particulate PAH intake concentrations were evaluated, and biomass fuel users exhibited high cancer risks and low embryo survival chances due to particulate PAH exposure. The average total cost of reducing the incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) and hazard quotient (HQ) to acceptable levels was lower when shifting from biomass to LPG stoves than when shifting to electric stoves. Graphical abstract