Enhanced in situ electrochemical sensing of trace chloroquine in human urine and serum samples using highly charged TiO2-NPs decorated with reduced graphene oxide

This research introduces a novel electrochemical sensor designed for the detection of chloroquine. The sensor was developed via a simple method to synthesize TiO 2 nanoparticles on reduced graphene oxide. The modified electrodes created in this manner exhibited high electrocatalytic activity and distinct chemical reactivity. Various techniques were utilized to perform morphological characterization of the nanocomposites. These techniques revealed alterations revealed changes in functional groups and the attachment of titanium to the reduced graphene oxide present on the electrode surface, thereby elucidating the reasons for the enhanced electrochemical performance. The sensor had a broad measurement range for chloroquine, capable of detecting concentrations as low as 10 −8 M. It is applicable for diverse sample analyses, including water, pharmaceuticals, human urine, and serum, with satisfaction ranging between 97 and 99%. Graphical Abstract The development strategy. An electrochemical sensor was developed using titanium oxide nanoparticles attached to reduced graphene oxide TiO 2 -NPs @RGO/GCE for real-time detection of chloroquine in real contaminated samples such as human urine, human serum, and tap water with low detection limit.