Paleoenvironment and human activity on the central Korean Peninsula during the late MIS 3 and MIS 2

Layers 12 and 13 of the Chongphadae Cave site located northwest of the central part of the Korean Peninsula include human fossils, fireplaces, a great number of lithic artefacts, and mammal remains. These layers represent new evidence for the paleoenvironment, human occupation, and activities in this region during the late MIS 3 and MIS 2, associated with global cold and dry climate, respectively. Most of lithic artefacts collected are flake tools. Raw material selection, lithic reduction technology, and lithic industry represent peculiar local characteristics. Our analysis of faunal assemblages also suggests that the Chongphadae region had a rich ecosystem capable of forming a diverse mammalian fauna including ungulates (mainly deer and horses) during this period. It is likely that the mosaic landscapes, including grasslands, forests, rivers, and wetlands, provided a favorable environment for humans, as well as mammals and plants, and the occupants of the site actively hunted and gathered in a relatively temperate environment. Our study suggests that the central Korean Peninsula was not severely affected by global dry and cold events such as LGM, although it was a somewhat humid and cold environment during the late MIS 3 and MIS 2. The central Korean Peninsula may have existed as an unknown refugium (or area of endemism) in northeastern Asia during this time.