Tissue engineering approaches for the in vitro production of spermatids to treat male infertility: A review

[Display omitted] Infertility influences 8–12% of couples globally with male infertility counting for approximately 50% of all infertility cases. Numerous factors such as endocrine disruptors, toxicants, genetics, inflammation, and hormonal disorders are mainly responsible for imparting infertility in males. The available treatments of male infertility are still an unaccomplished task, which is associated with pre-or post-meiotic obstacles to the spermatogenesis process. The development of in vitro spermatogenesis can be considered a potential platform for restoring infertility through a tissue-engineered strategy, which aims to replace the requirement of testes from healthy donors. Despite the innovation in design and fabrication technology, customization of testicular scaffolds is still a vital issue and needs consideration to endorse its relevance for therapeutic benefits. The successful in vitro spermatogenesis process requires appropriate methods to mimic the physiological conditions of the testes and the fabrication of properly designed scaffolds for sperm production. This review discusses the futuristic tissue engineering approaches to treating infertility. It also provides insights into the design and fabrication of testicular scaffolds to produce fertile sperms through three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting and sacrificial template strategies for the construction of tubular structures for the development of testicular organoid and microfluidic devices for supporting the spermatogenesis process.