Assessment of Urban Air Quality in Indonesia

This study assessed the urban air quality in 16 large Indonesian cities on the islands of Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku, and Papua from 2010 till 2017. 24-h samples of airborne particulate matter (PM) in two size fractions, PM_(2.5) (＜ 2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter) and PM_(2.5-10) (2.5-10 μm in aerodynamic diameter), were collected weekly using a Gent stacked filter unit sampler and then analyzed for their mass concentrations, black carbon (BC) content, and elemental compositions. The majority of the average annual PM_(2.5) concentrations measured at the Java sites (Bandung, Jakarta, Semarang, and Surabaya) exceeded the Indonesian annual ambient air quality standard (15 μg m^(-3)), although the other tested locations, excluding Pekanbaru and Palangka Raya, exhibited values below the standard. During the forest fire episodes of 2015, the average daily PM_(2.5) concentrations in Pekanbaru and Palangka Raya rose above the national daily ambient standard (65 μg m^(-3)). The percentage of BC, which is associated with traffic emission and biomass burning, averaged between 15% and 26% (a significant fraction) in the PM_(2.5). The concentrations of the major elements in the PM_(2.5), viz., Si, S, K, Fe, Zn, and Pb, varied widely from site to site, although all of the locations displayed enhanced levels of the crustal elements Si and S, which originated from unpaved roads and volcanic eruptions, and vehicle fuel, forest fires, and volcanic emissions, respectively. Significantly higher concentrations of heavy metals (Fe, Zn, and Pb in Surabaya and Pb in Tangerang) were found at the heavily industrialized sites, demonstrating the effect of local industrial emissions on air quality. Our results, which are based on a crucial survey of PM concentrations and compositions in Indonesia, provide a scientific basis for developing and improving various air quality policies in the nation, including an early warning system for severe pollution events.