Developmental and reproductive effects of clothianidin exposure in monarch butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)

Neonicotinoid insecticides are used to reduce crop damage caused by insect pests, but sublethal levels could affect development and reproduction in nontarget insects, such as monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). To investigate the impact of field-realistic concentrations of the neonicotinoid clothianidin on monarch butterflies, we grew swamp milkweed (Asclepias incarnata) (Apocynaceae) in either low (15 ng/g of soil) or high (25 ng/g of soil) levels of clothianidin, or in a control (0 ng/g), then raised monarchs on the milkweed. Morphological traits of monarch caterpillars were measured during development and, once they eclosed, were mated as adults to quantify egg size and mass and the number of eggs laid. Although the effects of the treatment had complex effects on caterpillar length, width and volume of late-instar caterpillars were negatively affected. Fifth-instar caterpillars from the high-dose insecticide treatment had lower mass than other groups. Adult monarch butterflies raised on treated milkweed were larger than controls, but clothianidin exposure did not affect the number of eggs laid or egg size. Although the magnitude of the effect depends on clothianidin concentration, our results suggest that exposure to clothianidin during early life can impact monarch caterpillar development but is unlikely to reduce female reproductive output.