Advances in Noninvasive Glucose Sensing Enabled by Photonics, Acoustics, and Microwaves

More than two decades have passed since the initial clinical trial of noninvasive glucose sensing using optical absorption spectroscopy. Today, noninvasive sensing technologies are expected to meet the increasing demand for high-quality diabetes management. Here, we review the latest advances in noninvasive glucose sensing research, focusing on how photonics-, acoustic- and electronics-based sensing technologies have played key roles in the development of the first noninvasive glucose sensors. We also present our recent work on multiphysics-based glucose sensing using near-infrared photoacoustic spectroscopy and broadband dielectric spectroscopy and a comparison with other competitive technologies.