Temperate deciduous forests embedded across developed landscapes: Younger forests harbour invasive plants and urban forests maintain native plants

Temperate deciduous forests in the United States are located in the most densely populated states across the northern and mid-Atlantic east coast. Land development and associated human activities result in small forests that are susceptible to anthropogenic influences, such as urbanization and non-native plant invasion. The overall objective of this study was to assess spatial and temporal drivers of forest vegetation structure and diversity in small forests embedded across developed landscapes. We assessed woody plant composition across spatial gradients (i.e., urbanization and non-native plant invasion) and a temporal gradient (i.e., time since canopy closure) across 38 forests along the east coast of the United States in northern Delaware and southeastern Pennsylvania. Surprisingly, we found the invasion gradient was not related to the urban gradient across our forests. Across all forests, the canopy consisted of native species (98% of all trees), whereas the forest understory was most vulnerable to non-native plant invasion (65% of all woody plant stems). Greater native species richness in forest canopies and understories with increasing urbanization supports the conclusion that urban forests maintain native species and are not inherently degraded ecosystems. Non-native plant invasion has a strong influence on understory plant communities, and the duration of intact forest canopy had a strong negative correlation with non-native plant invasion suggesting intact forests can resist invasion. Synthesis. This is the first study to compare simultaneously the importance of invasion and urbanization in determining plant community composition in forests embedded across developed landscapes, and to discover that younger forests harbor more invasive plants and urban forests maintain native plants. Our study simultaneously compared the influence of non‐native plant invasion and urbanization on plant communities within small temperate forests. We found no relationship between plant invasion and urbanization. The tree canopy consisted of native species, whereas the forest understorey contained many non‐native invasive plants. We found greater invasion in younger forests and more native plants in urban forests.