Higher-order personality factors and leadership outcomes: A meta-analysis

The present study reconsiders the relationship between personality and leadership by conceptualising personality in terms of factors that occur at the highest levels of breadth in the personality hierarchy. Using meta-analysis, the study examines the relationship between these higher-order factors (i.e., the General Factor of Personality [GFP] and the Big Two factors of Stability and Plasticity) and leadership outcomes (including transformational leadership behaviour and leadership effectiveness). The findings showed that the GFP was positively and more strongly related to leadership than the Big Two and Big Five factors, and that the Big Two factors were more strongly related to leadership than some of their corresponding Big Five factors. Moreover, most lower-order factors did not uniquely predict leadership, over and above the effects of the GFP. These findings challenge current knowledge about the nature of the relationship between personality and leadership. Theoretical contributions, practical implications and future directions are discussed.