Monetary Aggregates and Output

We ask whether the following observations may result from endogenously determined fluctuations in the money multiplier rather than a causal influence of money on output: (i) M1 is positively correlated with real output; (ii) the money multiplier and deposit-to-currency ratio are positively correlated with output; (iii) the price level is negatively correlated with output; (iv) the correlation of Ml with contemporaneous prices is substantially weaker than the correlation of Ml with real output; (v) correlations among real variables are essentially unchanged under different monetary-policy regimes; and (vi) real money balances are smoother than money-demand equations would predict.