What lies beneath? Perceptions of the ontological paradox of water

This paper discusses the paradox that the element water is both vital to life and yet can also kill. It is argued that this paradox was more apparent to humans than is often assumed in the modern Western world where water is usually viewed as pure and cleansing. This paper attempts to break this assumption down using three case studies. The first two use evidence from the imagery and inscriptions associated with dams and bathhouses in the Roman Near East to analyse the potential of water to flood and pollute. The third explores how votive deposition was linked conceptually to the transmutable, liminal nature of water, focusing on the Roman rural religious centre at Marcham/Frilford, England. These examples are used to illustrate the complex negotiations with the inherent paradox of water, which are manifested in protective symbols (to prevent flooding, illness and death) and votive deposition.