Fathead minnow response to broad-range exposure of ?-sitosterol concentrations during life-cycle testing

The β-sitosterol concentration in pulp and paper mill effluents is typically greater than that of other phytosterols and has been shown to cause a variety of effects in fish. The authors exposed fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) to low (22 ± 0.93 μg/L), medium-low (70 ± 2.1 μg/L), medium-high (237 ± 5.5 μg/L), and high (745 ± 16.2 μg/L) concentrations of β-sitosterol as well as negative (water), positive (ethynyl estradiol, 16 ± 0.58 ng/L), and carrier (0.6 mL/L acetone) controls. Fish were monitored over a full life cycle for population-level endpoints including growth and survival, reproductive endpoints (e.g. fecundity, sex steroids and vitellogenin, gonado-/hepatosomatic indices, and gonad histology). No significant differences were seen in fish growth, mortality, or reproduction with β-sitosterol exposure, although a trend for lower egg production in β-sitosterol exposures relative to the water control may be related to the acetone carrier. All ethynyl estradiol-exposed fish were smaller, showed female characteristics, and did not spawn. Sex steroid and vitellogenin were highly variable with no detectable treatment-related differences. Gonadal tissue showed no β-sitosterol-related differences in reproductive development and spawning capability, although most ethynyl estradiol-exposed males had ovarian tissue and were not spawning-capable. The results indicate that β-sitosterol exposure had little apparent impact on fathead minnow survival, growth, and reproduction even at concentrations >10 times that of typical effluents, although small sample size and variability precluded fully evaluating treatment responses on sex steroids and vitellogenin. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]