Patterns of primates crop foraging and the impacts on incomes of smallholders across the mosaic agricultural landscape of Wolaita zone, southern Ethiopia

Crop foraging by primates is a prevalent form of human-wildlife conflict, especially near protected areas. This behavior poses significant economic challenges for subsistence farmers, jeopardizing both livelihoods and conservation efforts. This study aimed to assess patterns of primate crop-foraging events and estimate maize damage in protected and unprotected fields in southern Ethiopia. Data were collected over 12 months between 2020 and 2021 in the Sodo Zuriya and Damot Gale districts of Southern Ethiopia. A team of six field experts and 25 farmers participated in the study, during which maize damage inflicted by primates was assessed using 25 deployed camera traps. Linear mixed models were used to explore the relationship between maize damage by primates and spatio-temporal variables. Olive baboons and grivet monkeys were found to target maize more frequently during June, July, and August. Olive baboons forage in the morning, while grivet monkeys do so in the afternoon. The average maize yield losses due to primate damage were 43.1% in protected fields and 31.4% in unprotected fields. Of the total damage, 43.1% occurred in protected fields situated 50 meters from the forest edge. Conversely, unprotected fields experienced lower rates of damage: 14.4%, 13.2%, 3.7%, and 0.1% at distances of 50 m, 100 m, 200 m, and 300 m from the forest edge, respectively. Camera traps captured 47 photos of baboons, 21 photos of grivet monkeys, and documented eight primate crop-foraging events. This study revealed that maize fields within 50 meters of the forest edge faced significant damage. Despite the use of wire mesh fencing, it was largely ineffective in deterring olive baboons and grivet monkeys. Additionally, while human guarding is often considered an effective protective strategy, these findings suggest its ineffectiveness due to inconsistent implementation. Overall, this study provides valuable insights for promoting primate conservation and mitigating human-primate conflicts.