Testicular toxicity following chronic codeine administration is via oxidative DNA damage and up-regulation of NO/TNF-α and caspase 3 activities

Codeine, a 3-methylmorphine, and other related opioids have been implicated in androgen suppression, although the associated mechanisms remain unclear. Therefore, the objective of the current study was to elucidate the in vivo molecular mechanisms underlying codeine-induced androgen suppression. This study made use of twenty-one healthy male rabbits, distributed into three groups randomly, control and codeine-treated groups. The control had 1ml of normal saline daily p.o. The codeine-treated groups received either 4mg/kg b.w of codeine or 10mg/kg b.w of codeine p.o. for six weeks. Reproductive hormonal profile, testicular weight, testicular enzymes, oxidative and inflammatory parameters, testicular DNA fragmentation, histological examination and apoptosis marker were evaluated to examine the effects of codeine use. Oral administration of codeine resulted in testicular atrophy and alterations in testicular histomorphology, elevated testicular enzymes, and suppression of circulatory and intra-testicular testosterone. These changes were associated with a marked rise in oxidative markers and decline in the activities of testicular enzymatic antioxidants, as well as oxidative DNA damage, inflammatory response, testicular DNA fragmentation, and caspase-dependent apoptosis (p