A Tribute to Stanley Deno

This chapter summarizes a study inspired by Deno that was conducted to examine norms and thresholds in nine multiple-language first-grade classrooms. The classrooms were termed “multiple-language” because often there were five or six native languages represented, including Spanish, indigenous dialects from Central America, Tagalog, Vietnamese, Hmong, Cambodian, Laotian, Cantonese, Somalian, Sudanese (Dinka language), and French. Bilingual instruction was not possible because of the multiple languages spoken; therefore, the first-grade teachers taught only in English. The results of this study indicate that reading fluency in English learners (ELs) in multiple-language classrooms is similar to that of non-ELs, and that English language level of the students and skill of the teacher do not appear to be mediating variables. Further, in this case, Oral Reading Fluency (ORF) and Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF) appear to be useful tools in identifying first grade students who might benefit from intensive instruction at the beginning of second grade.