INTRODUCTION: The National PTA, Race, and Civic Engagement

In 1897 at a meeting of the National Education Association, General Federation of Women’s Clubs (GFWC) president Ellen M. Henrotin gave a speech on the role of women’s organizations in public education. She posited that the two major movements of the late nineteenth century—the “woman movement” and the development of popular education—were, in fact, interdependent, as women volunteers worked tirelessly to shape schools and the curriculum through their associations. She announced, “The work of the general federation from 1896 to 1898 will be devoted to furthering a knowledge of and an interest in the educational conditions of the