Getting leaves into shape: a molecular, cellular, environmental and evolutionary view

Leaves arise from groups of undifferentiated cells as small primordia that go through overlapping phases of morphogenesis, growth and differentiation. These phases are genetically controlled and modulated by environmental cues to generate a stereotyped, yet plastic, mature organ. Over the past couple of decades, studies have revealed that hormonal signals, transcription factors and miRNAs play major roles during leaf development, and more recent findings have highlighted the contribution of mechanical signals to leaf growth. In this Review, we discuss how modulating the activity of some of these regulators can generate diverse leaf shapes during development, in response to a varying environment, or between species during evolution.