Fine particulate matter in the tropical environment: monsoonal effects, source apportionment, and health risk assessment

The health implications of PM.sub.2.5 in the tropical region of Southeast Asia (SEA) are significant as PM.sub.2.5 can pose serious health concerns. PM.sub.2.5 concentration and sources here are strongly influenced by changes in the monsoon regime from the south-west quadrant to the north-east quadrant in the region. In this work, PM.sub.2.5 samples were collected at a semi-urban area using a high-volume air sampler at different seasons on 24 h basis. Analysis of trace elements and water-soluble ions was performed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) and ion chromatography (IC), respectively. Apportionment analysis of PM.sub.2.5 was carried out using the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) positive matrix factorization (PMF) 5.0 and a mass closure model. We quantitatively characterized the health risks posed to human populations through the inhalation of selected heavy metals in PM.sub.2.5 . 48 % of the samples collected exceeded the World Health Organization (WHO) 24 h PM.sub.2.5 guideline but only 19 % of the samples exceeded 24 h US EPA National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS). The PM.sub.2.5 concentration was slightly higher during the north-east monsoon compared to south-west monsoon. The main trace metals identified were As, Pb, Cd, Ni, Mn, V, and Cr while the main ions were SO.sub.4 .sup.2-, NO.sub.3 .sup.-, NH.sub.4 .sup.+, and Na. The mass closure model identified four major sources of PM.sub.2.5 that account for 55 % of total mass balance. The four sources are mineral matter (MIN) (35 %), secondary inorganic aerosol (SIA) (11 %), sea salt (SS) (7 %), and trace elements (TE) (2 %). PMF 5.0 elucidated five potential sources: motor vehicle emissions coupled with biomass burning (31 %) were the most dominant, followed by marine/sulfate aerosol (20 %), coal burning (19 %), nitrate aerosol (17 %), and mineral/road dust (13 %). The hazard quotient (HQ) for four selected metals (Pb, As, Cd, and Ni) in PM.sub.2.5 mass was highest in PM.sub.2.5 mass from the coal burning source and least in PM.sub.2.5 mass originating from the mineral/road dust source. The main carcinogenic heavy metal of concern to health at the current location was As; the other heavy metals (Ni, Pb, and Cd) did not pose a significant cancer risk in PM.sub.2.5 mass concentration. Overall, the associated lifetime cancer risk posed by the exposure of hazardous metals in PM.sub.2.5 is 3-4 per 1 000 000 people