Ecological consequences of the expansion of [N.sub.2]-fixing plants in cold biomes

Research in warm-climate biomes has shown that invasion by symbiotic dinitrogen ([N.sub.2])-fixing plants can transform ecosystems in ways analogous to the transformations observed as a consequence of anthropogenic, atmospheric nitrogen (N) deposition: declines in biodiversity, soil acidification, and alterations to carbon and nutrient cycling, including increased N losses through nitrate leaching and emissions of the powerful greenhouse gas nitrous oxide ([N.sub.2]O). here, we used literature review and case study approaches to assess the evidence for similar transformations in cold-climate ecosystems of the boreal, subarctic and upper montane-temperate life zones. Our assessment focuses on the plant genera Lupinus and Alnus, which have become invasive largely as a consequence of deliberate introductions and/or reduced land management. These cold biomes are commonly located in remote areas with low anthropogenic N inputs, and the environmental impacts of [N.sub.2]-fixer invasion appear to be as severe as those from anthropogenic N deposition in highly N polluted areas. Hence, inputs of N from [N.sub.2] fixation can affect ecosystems as dramatically or even more strongly than N inputs from atmospheric deposition, and biomes in cold climates represent no exception with regard to the risk of being invaded by [N.sub.2]-fixing species. In particular, the cold biomes studied here show both a strong potential to be transformed by [N.sub.2]-fixing plants and a rapid subsequent saturation in the ecosystem's capacity to retain N. Therefore, analogous to increases in N deposition, [N.sub.2]-fixing plant invasions must be deemed significant threats to biodiversity and to environmental quality. Keywords Alnus * Biodiversity * Carbon * Invasive * Lupinus * Nitrogen