Testing loblolly pine wind firmness with simulated wind stress

The forces and mechanics related to the wind firmness of 30-year-old loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) trees were tested by toppling them with a winch and cable system. The ability of trees to resist toppling, expressed as the critical turning moment. was determined by measuring the force exerted by the winch and the height on the tree where the center of force was exerted. Critical turning moments were closely and positively related to stem taper (R(2) 0.91) and various measures of tree size, including tree weight (R(2)= 0.96), stem volume (R(2) = 0.94), and cubic diameter at breast height (R(2) = 0.93). The flexibility of tree stems, measured by the angle of stem deflection during tree pulling, was negatively related to tree size. Measures of center of gravity, crown:stem ratio, and stem moisture content were not significantly related to critical turning moment. Soil moisture content was only weakly significant and negatively related to critical turning moment. With few exceptions, trees subjected to simulated wind stress treatment resembled southern pines subjected to natural acute wind stress. In both cases, root systems were rarely damaged and stem failure occurred instead of uprooting. However, pulled trees tended to break lower on the stem than wind-broken trees