Advanced technological adaptations can improve the energy-cum-carbon-efficiency of diverse rice production systems

Worldwide, there is an urgent need to develop energy-cum-carbon smart and cost-effective rice production systems for farmer's adoption. Data were collected from 280 farmer's fields representing the South Asia rice production system. Out of these 75 fields following transplanted rice (TPR), 55 fields of wet direct seeded rice (WDSR), 60 fields of drill sown direct seeded rice in line (DSR L), 60 fields of traditional direct seeded rice (DSR) and 30 fields of DSR + beushning (DSR + B). Results show that grain and straw yields in the TPR were 6056 and 7752 kg ha−1, respectively; however, they were neither profitable, energy efficient, or eco-friendly. At the same time, the grain and straw yields in DSR L were recorded by 5832 and 7757 kg ha−1, respectively. It was profitable with the highest net returns (1111.5 US$ ha−1), energy use efficiency (12.77), energy productivity (0.41 kg MJ−1), energy profitability (11.77 US$ MJ−1), energy output efficiency (1314.3 MJ day−1) environment friendly in terms of carbon efficiency 7.20, carbon sustainability index (6.20) and had most diminutive carbon footprint (0.14 kg CO2 eq kg−1 grain) with a comparable carbon credit. DSR L is productive, economically viable, energy efficient, and environmentally safer among rice production systems.