Sub Altern Orientalism and Counter-Hegemonic Struggles. The Construction of Arab, Chinese and Russian Communities in Chavista Venezuela

In its attempt to pursue an elusive Modernist vision of development, the Chávez government (1999-2013) in Venezuela concocted a fresh and very binary roster of "us" versus "them." In its counter-hegemonic project, in Gramscian terms, Venezuela has promoted a subaltern Orientalism that has featured the demonization of the United States and its closest allies, and a rather abrupt bonding with countries and associated cultures with which it had little previous contact, as exemplified by the cases of China, Iran and Russia. Edward Said (1978) defined Orientalism as a concept with reference to imperialist powers vis-à-vis developing countries. However, in the case at hand, one observes a refreshing twist: here one observes Orientalism on the part of developing and non-Western nations in relation to a counter-hegemonic struggle vis-à-vis dominant Western countries, or what I term Sub-altern Orientalism. The article shall address this incipient phase of identity construction in Venezuela regarding the Chinese, Arab, and to a lesser extent, Russian presence.