Gut dysbiosis associates with cytokine production capacity in viral-suppressed people living with HIV

People living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLHIV) are exposed to chronic immune dysregulation, even when virus replication is suppressed by antiretroviral therapy (ART). Given the emerging role of the gut microbiome in immunity, we hypothesized that the gut microbiome may be related to the cytokine production capacity of PLHIV. To test this hypothesis, we collected metagenomic data from 143 ART-treated PLHIV and assessed the production capacity of eight different cytokines [interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, IL-1Ra, IL-10, IL-17, IL-22, tumor necrosis factor, and interferon-γ] in response to different stimuli. We also characterized CD4 T-cell counts, HIV reservoir, and other clinical parameters. Compared with 190 age- and sex-matched controls and a second independent control cohort, PLHIV showed microbial dysbiosis that was correlated with viral reservoir levels (CD4 T-cell-associated HIV-1 DNA), cytokine production capacity, and sexual behavior. Notably, we identified two genetically different strains that were enriched in either PLHIV or healthy controls. The control-related strain showed a stronger negative association with cytokine production capacity than the PLHIV-related strain, particularly for Pam3Cys-incuded IL-6 and IL-10 production. The control-related strain is also positively associated with CD4 T-cell level. Our findings suggest that modulating the gut microbiome may be a strategy to modulate immune response in PLHIV.