Color Fundus Photography and Deep Learning Applications in Alzheimer Disease

To report the development and performance of 2 distinct deep learning models trained exclusively on retinal color fundus photographs to classify Alzheimer disease (AD). Two independent datasets (UK Biobank and our tertiary academic institution) of good-quality retinal photographs derived from patients with AD and controls were used to build 2 deep learning models, between April 1, 2021, and January 30, 2024. ADVAS is a U-Net–based architecture that uses retinal vessel segmentation. ADRET is a bidirectional encoder representations from transformers style self-supervised learning convolutional neural network pretrained on a large data set of retinal color photographs from UK Biobank. The models’ performance to distinguish AD from non-AD was determined using mean accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and receiving operating curves. The generated attention heatmaps were analyzed for distinctive features. The self-supervised ADRET model had superior accuracy when compared with ADVAS, in both UK Biobank (98.27% vs 77.20%; P