The Power of Drosophila melanogaster for Modeling Neonicotinoid Effects on Pollinators and Identifying Novel Mechanisms

Neonicotinoids are the most widely used insecticides in the world and are implicated in the widespread population declines of insects including pollinators. Neonicotinoids target nicotinic acetylcholine receptors which are expressed throughout the insect central nervous system, causing a wide range of sub-lethal effects on non-target insects. Here, we review the potential of the fruit fly to model the sub-lethal effects of neonicotinoids on pollinators, by utilizing its well-established assays that allow rapid identification and mechanistic characterization of these effects. We compare studies on the effects of neonicotinoids on lethality, reproduction, locomotion, immunity, learning, circadian rhythms and sleep in and a range of pollinators. We also highlight how the genetic tools available in , such as targeted transgene expression system combined with lines to any gene in the genome including the different nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit genes, are set to elucidate the mechanisms that underlie the sub-lethal effects of these common pesticides. We argue that studying pollinators and in tandem allows rapid elucidation of mechanisms of action, which translate well from to pollinators. We focus on the recent identification of novel and important sublethal effects of neonicotinoids on circadian rhythms and sleep. The comparison of effects between and pollinators and the use of genetic tools to identify mechanisms make a powerful partnership for the future discovery and testing of more specific insecticides.