A review on the fate, human health and environmental impacts, as well as regulation of antibiotics used in aquaculture

Antibiotics have been a necessary component of animal husbandry and aquaculture since they were first used in clinical settings in the 1940s to meet the rising demand for foods generated from animals. Because of this, large-scale industrial animal production has become a hotspot for the evolution and spread of ARGs (antibiotic resistant genes), potentially posing a threat to public health. The recent advent of quick molecular technologies has substantially increased our understanding of ARGs in cattle systems. From a One Health perspective, detailed analyses of ARGs in the livestock industry and potential mitigation strategies are currently available. In order to clarify the intricacies of ARGs across animals, habitats, and people, this review is focused on human health hazards related to antibiotic usages, ARGs in cattle and aquaculture systems. This review specifically addresses the following topics: (1) antimicrobials used in the animal sector; (2) development of ARGs on animals affected by selected agents; (3) ARG transmission mechanisms (direct/indirect animal-to-human); and (4) mitigating strategies. We emphasize the difficulty of reducing the administering antibiotics to animals for the sake of public and environmental health, as well as the critical necessity to take immediate action to stop the transmission of antibiotic/drug resistance in the livestock and aquaculture sectors.