Micromechanisms leading to shear failure of Opalinus Clay in a triaxial test: a high-resolution BIB–SEM study

A microphysics-based understanding of mechanical and hydraulic processes in clay shales is required for developing advanced constitutive models, which can be extrapolated to long-term deformation. Although many geomechanical tests have been performed to characterise the bulk mechanical, hydro-mechanical, and failure behaviour of Opalinus Clay, important questions remain about micromechanisms: how do microstructural evolution and deformation mechanisms control the complex rheology? What is the in situ microstructural shear evolution, and can it be mimicked in the laboratory? In this contribution, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to image microstructures in an Opalinus Clay sample deformed in an unconsolidated–undrained triaxial compression test at 4 MPa confining stress followed by argon broad ion beam (BIB) polishing. Axial load was applied (sub-)perpendicular to bedding until the sample failed. The test was terminated at an axial strain of 1.35 %. Volumetric strain measurements showed bulk compaction throughout the compression test. Observations on the centimetre to micrometre scale showed that the samples exhibited shear failure and that deformation localised by forming a network of micrometre-wide fractures, which are oriented with angles of 50∘ with respect to horizontal. In BIB–SEM at the grain scale, macroscale fractures are shown to be incipient shear bands, which show dilatant intergranular and intragranular microfracturing, granular flow, bending of phyllosilicate grains, and pore collapse in fossils. Outside these zones, no deformation microstructures were observed, indicating only localised permanent deformation. Thus, micromechanisms of deformation appear to be controlled by both brittle and ductile processes along preferred deformation bands. Anastomosing networks of fractures develop into the main deformation bands with widths up to tens of micrometres along which the sample fails. Microstructural observations and the stress–strain behaviour were integrated into a deformation model with three different stages of damage accumulation representative for the deformation of the compressed Opalinus Clay sample. Results on the microscale explain how the sample locally dilates, while bulk measurement shows compaction, with an inferred major effect on permeability by an increase in hydraulic conductivity within the deformation band. Comparison with the microstructure of highly strained Opalinus Clay in fault zones shows partial similarity a