Assessing protected area networks in the conservation of elephants (Elephas Maximus) in Sri Lanka

•Time series remote sensing data allow for the identification of changes that have happened in protected regions.•There is a close relationship between protected area performance and land use and land cover change.•There is a correlation between fragmentation of protected areas and the incidence of human-elephant conflicts. Protected areas play a crucial role in the conservation and management of wildlife, but land use and land cover change (LULCC) threatens the status of protected areas. Sri Lanka has a history of severe human–elephant conflict (HEC). In the last 15 years, Sri Lanka has recorded the highest mortality of elephants and the second-highest human casualties among countries where the Asian elephant is native. In this study, we conducted a whole of country analysis of the effect of LULCC on protected areas using a land cover change map (1993–2018) recently developed by the authors using Landsat satellite data. Protected area performances were measured using five criteria including LULCC, the protected areas, and categorised into three performance levels. The protected area performances were then compared with number of HEC incidents. We found that 12% of Sri Lanka's protected area was affected by LULCC events, and every individual protected area experienced LULCC. We also found that 86% of elephant death incidents occurred within a 5 km radius of protected areas, with a strong negative correlation with distance from protected areas (r = –0.94, p < 0.05). Some 43% of HEC incidents and 23% of elephant deaths occurred inside protected areas, while 40% of elephant deaths in the last two years occurred inside protected areas. These areas were also found to fragment over time and elephant deaths increased, and showed a strong positive correlation, with fragmentation (r = 0.88, p < 0.05). Wildlife regions that experienced higher LULCC also experienced a greater number of elephant deaths, with a moderately positive correlation (r = 0.54, p