Prenatal Fine Particulate Matter, Maternal Micronutrient Antioxidant Intake, and Early Childhood Repeated Wheeze: Effect Modification by Race/Ethnicity and Sex

Fine particulate matter (PM ) potentiates in utero oxidative stress influencing fetal development while antioxidants have potential protective effects. We examined associations among prenatal PM , maternal antioxidant intake, and childhood wheeze in an urban pregnancy cohort ( = 530). Daily PM exposure over gestation was estimated using a satellite-based spatiotemporally resolved model. Mothers completed the modified Block98 food frequency questionnaire. Average energy-adjusted percentile intake of β-carotene, vitamins (A, C, E), and trace minerals (zinc, magnesium, selenium) constituted an antioxidant index (AI). Maternal-reported child wheeze was ascertained up to 4.1 ± 2.8 years. Bayesian distributed lag interaction models (BDLIMs) were used to examine time-varying associations between prenatal PM and repeated wheeze (≥2 episodes) and effect modification by AI, race/ethnicity, and child sex. Covariates included maternal age, education, asthma, and temperature. Women were 39% Black and 33% Hispanic, 36% with ≤high school education; 21% of children had repeated wheeze. Higher AI was associated with decreased wheeze in Blacks (OR = 0.37 (0.19-0.73), per IQR increase). BDLIMs identified a sensitive window for PM effects on wheeze among boys born to Black mothers with low AI (at 33-40 weeks gestation; OR = 1.74 (1.19-2.54), per µg/m increase in PM ). Relationships among prenatal PM , antioxidant intake, and child wheeze were modified by race/ethnicity and sex.