Genetic Diversity and Selection of Plasmodium vivax Apical Membrane Antigen-1 in China-Myanmar Border of Yunnan Province, China, 2009-2016

apical membrane antigen-1 (PvAMA-1) is an important vaccine candidate for vivax malaria. However, antigenic variation within PvAMA-1 is a major obstacle to the design of a global protective malaria vaccine. In this study, we analyzed the genetic polymorphism and selection of the PvAMA-1 gene from 152 isolates from imported cases to China, collected in the China-Myanmar border (CMB) area in Yunnan Province (YP) during 2009-2011 ( = 71) and 2014-2016 ( = 81), in comparison with PvAMA-1 gene information from Myanmar ( = 73), collected from public data. The overall nucleotide diversity of the PvAMA-1 gene from the 152 YP isolates was 0.007 with 76 haplotypes identified ( = 0.958). Results from the population structure suggested three groups among the YP and Myanmar isolates with optimized clusters value of = 7. In addition, YP (2014-2016) isolates generally lacked some components that were commonly found in YP (2009-2011) and Myanmar. Meanwhile, PvAMA-1 domain I is found to be the dominant target of positive diversifying selection and most mutation loci were found in this domain. The mutation frequencies of D107N/A, R112K/T, K120R, E145A, E277K, and R438H in PvAMA-1 were more than 70% in the YP isolates. In conclusion, high genetic diversity and positive selection were found in the PvAMA-1 gene from YP isolates, which are significant findings for the design and development of PvAMA-1-based malaria vaccine.