Land use and anthropogenic heat modulate ozone by meteorology: a perspective from the Yangtze River Delta region

With the rapid advance in urbanization, land use and anthropogenic heat (AH) dictated by human activities significantly modify the urban climate and in turn the air quality. Focusing on the Yangtze River Delta (YRD) region, a highly urbanized coastal area with severe ozone (O3) pollution, we estimate the impacts of land use and AH on meteorology and O3 using the Weather Research and Forecasting model coupled to Chemistry (WRF-Chem). These results enhance our understanding of the formation of O3 pollution in rapidly developing city clusters with place-specific topography, as most of our results can be supported by previous studies conducted in other regions around the world. Regional O3 pollution episodes occurred frequently (∼ 26 times per year) in the YRD from 2015 to 2019. These O3 pollution episodes are usually in calm conditions characterized by high temperature (over 20 ∘C), low relative humidity (less than 80 %), light wind (less than 3 m s−1) and shallow cloud cover (less than 5 okta). In this case, O3 pollution belts tend to appear in the converging airflows associated with the sea and the lake breezes. On the other hand, rapid urbanization has significantly changed land use and AH in this region, which subsequently affects meteorology and O3 concentration. The largest change in land use comes from urban expansion, which causes an increase in 2 m temperature (T2) by a maximum of 3 ∘C, an increase in planetary boundary layer height (PBLH) by a maximum of 500 m, a decrease in 10 m wind speed (WS10) by a maximum of 1.5 m s−1 and an increase in surface O3 by a maximum of 20 µg m−3. With regard to the sea and lake breezes, the expansion of coastal cities, like Shanghai, can enhance the sea breeze circulation by ∼ 1 m s−1. During the advance of the sea breeze front inland, the updraft induced by the front causes strong vertical mixing of O3. However, once the sea breeze is fully developed in the afternoon (∼ 17:00 LT), further progression inland will stall. Then O3 removal by the low sea breeze will be weakened, and surface O3 can be 10 µg m−3 higher in the case with cities than in the case with no cities. The expansion of lakeside cities, such as Wuxi and Suzhou, can extend the lifetime of lake breezes from noon to afternoon. Since the offshore flow of the lake breeze transports high O3 from the land to the lake, the onshore flow brings high O3 back to the land. Surface O3 in lakeside cities can increase by as much as 30 µg m−3. Compared to land use, th