Review of the risk of cancer following low and moderate doses of sparsely ionising radiation received in early life in groups with individually estimated doses

•There is mounting evidence of cancer risk from low dose radiation in childhood.•A systematic review was conducted of cancer after exposure in utero or childhood.•There were excess cancer risks associated with radiation exposure in childhood.•There were excess cancer risks associated with radiation exposure in utero.•Excess cancer risks were seen at levels approaching 0.02 Gy. The detrimental health effects associated with the receipt of moderate (0.1–1 Gy) and high (>1 Gy) acute doses of sparsely ionising radiation are well established from human epidemiological studies. There is accumulating direct evidence of excess risk of cancer in a number of populations exposed at lower acute doses or doses received over a protracted period. There is evidence that relative risks are generally higher after radiation exposures in utero or in childhood. We reviewed and summarised evidence from 60 studies of cancer or benign neoplasms following low- or moderate-level exposure in utero or in childhood from medical and environmental sources. In most of the populations studied the exposure was predominantly to sparsely ionising radiation, such as X-rays and gamma-rays. There were significant (p