Art historical and scientific controversies about four easel paintings attributed to Kamal al-Molk, the renowned nineteenth-twentieth century Persian painter

Pigments on four easel paintings signed by Mohammad Ghaffari (latter Kamal al-Molk), the renowned Persian painter lived from the mid-nineteenth to the mid-twentieth century, kept at the Astan-e Qods-e Razavi Museum (AQRM) in Mashhad, Iran, were identified by micro-X-ray fluorescence (µ-XRF), scanning electron microscopy—energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM–EDS) and micro-Raman spectroscopy (µ-Raman). Apart from chrome yellow, green chromium oxide and red ochre, four blue pigments including Prussian blue, artificial ultramarine blue, azurite, blue phthalocyanine PB:16 and seven white pigments including rutile, huntite, lead white, baryte, chalk, gypsum and zinc white were identified on the paintings. Based on the occurrence of rutile and blue phthalocyanine PB:16 and the fact that the signature of the paintings suggests 1875 as the date of executing the paintings, several hypotheses were argued to discuss the latter interventions and the authenticity of the works. Discussions on the birth date and other important milestones of Kamal al-Molk’s life accordingly posed serious questions on the authenticity of these paintings.