Examining supply-demand imbalances and social inequalities of regulating ecosystem services in high-density cities: A case study of Wuhan, China

[Display omitted] •An assessment system of RESs demand was developed based on environmental risk theory.•The majority (78.16%) of neighborhoods have inadequate RESs supply to meet the demand.•RESs’ social inequality existed in Wuhan.•Females, low-income and low-educated groups experience a greater supply–demand gap. Rapid urbanization in high-density cities has resulted in supply–demand imbalances and inequalities of urban ecosystem services (ESs), necessitating integrated ESs assessment for managing regulating ecosystem services (RESs). Previous research has mainly focused on ESs supply, largely neglecting ESs demand measurement. To address this gap, this study proposes an evaluation system that considers environmental risks to analyze RESs supply–demand mismatch and social equality in Wuhan’s central area. Our research findings demonstrate that the supply capacity of RESs is closely linked to the distribution of land use, whereas the demand capacity of RESs is influenced by the areas’ environmental risks, such as hazard, exposure, and vulnerability. Additionally, our study reveals that 78.16% of neighborhoods in Wuhan experience a shortfall RESs, indicating that the demand for these services exceeds the supply. This imbalance gap decreases from the city center to the periphery. Notably, social inequalities exist in the allocation of RESs in Wuhan, with women and people residing in low-price houses in central areas, as well as the floating and low-educated population in marginal areas, experiencing more significant supply–demand imbalances. This study offers valuable insights into promoting the balance construction of urban ecological environments and advancing social equality through resilient urban planning.