Transformational and active transactional leadership in the Canadian military

Purpose - This study seeks to examine the manifestation and effects of transformational, contingent reward, and active management-by-exception leadership across ranks in the Canadian military. It also aims to investigate whether or not the relationships between perceived leadership behaviors and effective leadership outcomes are moderated by hierarchical level and followers' expectations.Design methodology approach - A total of 704 military officers and enlisted members rated their leaders' behaviors and the behaviors they expect of their leaders.Findings - Frequency of transformational leadership behaviors increased with rank, but frequencies of perceived and expected contingent reward and active management-by-exception leadership behaviors did not. Transformational and contingent reward leadership effects were not moderated by rank or by followers' expectations. The effects of perceived active management-by-exception leadership were moderated by followers' expectations.Research limitations implications - When followers do not expect active management-by-exception from their supervisors, based on their own implicit beliefs about the types of behaviors their leaders should be exhibiting, but they are subjected to it, their job satisfaction and their attitudes toward their supervisors may be negatively affected.Practical implications - Transformational leadership is prevalent, expected, and effective at all hierarchical levels. Because of their positive impact on followers' job satisfaction and their attitudes toward their supervisors, the Canadian military should continue to encourage transformational leadership and contingent reward leadership behaviors at all hierarchical levels.Originality value - The study highlights the potential importance of congruence between the expectations followers have of their leaders and followers' perceptions of their leaders' actual behaviors.