A layered model of organizations: Communication processes and performance

Modeling organizations is most useful for predicting the outcome of decisions and courses of action. However, the tendency has been to view an organization too narrowly, thus overlooking critical variables. For example, financial models are based on abstract indicators and do not adequately describe human factors. This article offers a five-layer, multidisciplinary model, where each layer defines units of analysis and subsystem boundaries. The layers (behavior-motion, activity, process-procedure, function, mission) define arenas of practical action, ranging from individuals' moment-by-moment behaviors, such as making telephone calls, to broad policy decisions and functional structure of organizations.