Fundamentals of Li/CF x battery design and application

Li/fluorinated carbon (Li/CF x ) batteries are promising systems with ultrahigh energy density and long storage life. They are particularly suitable for emerging applications in military equipment, interventional medical devices, and spacecrafts. Research on Li/CF x batteries is at a critical point, transitioning from small- to large-scale applications. Therefore, efforts should be made to improve the performance of Li/CF x batteries. Herein, we comprehensively review Li/CF x batteries and provide a panoramic view of battery design, ranging from electrochemical mechanism to material synthesis, summarise the synthesis–structure–performance relationship, and propose an energy-guided strategy for CF x implementation. A particular emphasis was placed on practicality. Therefore, battery-level solutions are introduced herein, including the effects of the electrolyte and electrode architecture on battery performance. In addition, new applications of Li/CF x batteries as rechargeable batteries and state-of-the-art progress reports have been highlighted. Finally, we present our perspectives on several field-related issues that warrant further investigation.