Energy transfer in lanthanide upconversion studies for extended optical applications

Lanthanide pairs, which can upconvert low energy photons into higher energy photons, are promising for efficient upconversion emission. A typical system with Yb 3+ as a sensitizer can convert short NIR into visible/ultraviolet light via energy transfer between lanthanide ions. Such upconverting nanocrystals doped with lanthanide ions have found significant potential in bioimaging, photochemical reactions and energy conversion. This review presents a fundamental understanding of energy transfer in lanthanide-supported photon upconversion. We introduce the emerging progress in excitation selection based on the energy transfer within lanthanide ions or activation from antennae, with an outlook in the development and applications of the lanthanide upconversion emissions. In this review, the various energy transfer pathways involved in lanthanide-related upconversion emissions are comprehensively discussed.