Protocatechuic Acid, a Metabolite of Anthocyanins, Inhibits Monocyte Adhesion and Reduces Atherosclerosis in Apolipoprotein E-Deficient Mice

Polyphenols, including anthocyanins, from various plant foods are effective in the prevention of atherosclerosis in animal and human studies. Protocatechuic acid (PCA), a major metabolite of anthocyanins, has been found to possess the anti-carcinogenic effect, whereas the in vivo effect of PCA as an anti-atherosclerotic agent remains unknown. We demonstrated herein that PCA inhibited monocyte adhesion to tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-activated mouse aortic endothelial cells, associated with the inhibition of vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) expression. Furthermore, PCA inhibited the nuclear content of p65, a subunit of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), along with reduced NF-κB binding activity. Finally, PCA administration in the apolipoprotein E (ApoE)-deficient mouse model reduced aortic VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 expression, NF-κB activity, and plasma-soluble VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 levels, with inhibiting atherosclerosis development. We suggest that PCA possesses the anti-atherogenic effect at least partially via its anti-inflammatory activity.