Operando Optical Imaging of Cathode Swelling Process Inside Lithium Primary Batteries: Comparative Studies between Different Structured CF x

As a crucial cathode material with ultrahigh theoretical capacity (865 mAh/g) and energy density (>2100 Wh/kg), fluorinated carbon (CF x ) is promising for lithium primary batteries. However, the operating performance of CF x cathode is hindered by nonuniform volume expansion during discharging. To investigate this, we used operando confocal microscopy to visualize the thickness evolution of two different CF x cathodes and quantified their swelling ratios as a function of the discharge depth. Our findings show that CF x synthesized from hard carbon (FHC), featuring a disordered structure and abundant pores, exhibits a swelling ratio lower than that of conventional layered fluorinated graphite (FG). This is due to different electrochemical mechanisms: lithium enters FG interlayers nonuniformly through “edge propagation” pathways while lithiation occurs homogeneously in FHC, unraveled by single-particle Raman and photoluminescence measurement. This work enhances our understanding on CF x volume expansion, offering important opportunities to address the cathode swelling issue and optimize electrochemical performance in Li/CF x batteries.